Explanation of Styles

❈ (First) Chicago School ❈

~1880s – 1910

SUMMARY 

With the excitement of the new steel frame “skyscraper,” there was a desire for unique American styles. The invention of the steel frame provided new opportunities for exterior non-load bearing walls, hanging like a curtain on the frame. The three key features are a tripartite facade over a steel frame, larger, protruding Chicago Style Window, and an elevator. There is no clear-cut example of this style on the river, so it may be tough to mention. However, The Chicago School building at 325 N Wells St. between Chicago Cut Steakhouse and the Merchandise Mart is a useful model to describe the basic features. Bear in mind, a building with a tripartite facade is not necessarily a Chicago Style building. 

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Exterior walls were masonry-clad curtain walls strapped onto the steel frame.  Tripartite, or three-part facades, are like a Roman column with a base, shaft, and capital (roof). Often the base and capital shared artistic features. The emphasis was on symmetrical verticality. Louis Sullivan said: “A solid base, a soaring vertical shaft and a roof, or capital. Every inch a proud and soaring thing!” 
  • A steel frame building is ⅓ lighter than a building with load-bearing walls. The load bearing walls had to be 6” wider to support each floor.  
  • A distinguishing feature of a Chicago Style Building is a Chicago Style Window, which has a protruding fixed center window pane flanked by a movable sash at each side. Some stick out like a bay window. Center pane bragging of new large-pane technology and taking advantage of steel frame structures.  

FORM FOLLOWS:

  • Verticality, new technology.

It is from Louis Sullivan himself that we get the phrase “Form (ever) follows function,” the dictum that encapsulates the school’s aesthetic and characterizes it as a forerunner to Modernism. 

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING:

At the end of the 1900’s, a new player had entered the world of architecture: The U.S.,  specifically Chicago! Young architects, who flocked to the city after the Great Fire, wanted to make a name for themselves. Using the new technologies at hand, these architects gave rise to the Chicago School, satisfying the desire for “all-American” styles and aesthetics in design.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT  

  • It is a unique Chicago style of construction created as a near-direct result of the Great Fire and the city’s need to reinvent itself. The new community of Chicago architects was looking for ways to innovate and make its mark.
  • Louis Sullivan and many other architects were disenchanted with the architecture of the Beaux Arts movement and were looking for ways to set their work apart from their European predecessors and contemporaries. Beyond the stylistic desires of the architects of the time, rising real estate prices began to drive the need to build higher instead of wider, leading to the advent of skyscrapers and the Chicago School.

ARCHITECTS OF (FIRST) CHICAGO SCHOOL BUILDINGS:

William LeBaron Jenney, Louis Sullivan (moved to Chicago in 1873),  Rebori, Holabird, Roche, John Root (moved to Chicago in 1872)

EXAMPLES OF (FIRST) CHICAGO SCHOOL:

  • Marquette Building
  • Reliance Building 
  • Monadnock Building

❈ Beaux Arts ❈

~1890s – 1920s

SUMMARY

Beaux Arts – French for “fine /beautiful art” – came from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, a broader artistic movement encapsulating the aesthetics of late 19th century France (Louis Sullivan studied at the Paris school named after the movement). As a revivalist style, this movement came to the United States as a way to bring the grandiosity of European styles to our shores, especially the old Greek and Roman styles. This style was often found in grand government and institutional buildings and was the inspiration for Burnham’s White City for the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Classical forms and features (often Greek or Roman-inspired) were borne of heavy masonry (marble, limestone and granite.) 
  • A hallmark of the style is its elaborate, decorated surfaces with features like grand, Roman arches, colossal columns or pilasters, and temple-like front faces.
  • Beaux Arts structures are statuary and dramatic, with abundant decoration – urns, finials, and classic majestic designs with an emphasis on symmetry, formal design, elaborate ornamentation, and grandeur.

FORM FOLLOWS:

  • Form follows classical aesthetics, ideals, classic European definition of grandeur and beauty, and theatrical nobility.

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING

The United States still had deep ties to Europe, especially when it came to design and aesthetics. Before the U.S. could find its own voice in design and architecture, it was still relying on the grandiosity of old world European architecture. And as the country began to increase its wealth and become more industrialized, there was more money for new construction. This led to a push for grander buildings inspired by the opulence of classic architecture that could match the increase in capital.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

With fresh streams of capital and a desire to uplift the U.S. as a major player in the world of design and architecture, the Beaux Arts movement became the vehicle for displaying the newfound abilities of architects to craft stunning, classical architecture, invoking the kind of old-world charm that had been missing in a country still relatively young on the world’s stage. In Chicago, the catalyst for embracing this style was the White City of the 1893 World’s Fair with Daniel Burnham’s championing of the City Beautiful Movement directly linked to his fondness of old-world European architecture styles.

EXAMPLES OF BEAUX ARTS:

  • Art Institute of Chicago
  • Museum of Science and Industry
  • Railroad Exchange (Santa Fe Building)
  • The White City of the 1893 World’s Fair
  • Michigan Avenue Bridge and Wacker Drive balustrades

❈ Spanish Revival ❈

~1900’s – 1920’s

SUMMARY

Just as with the Beaux Arts movement, the U.S. was looking towards European styles to guide them. Spanish architecture proved to be a natural addition to the revivalist movement adding to the grandiosity with their bright, highly ornamented terra cotta-clad buildings.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Often clad in terra cotta creating a brightness to the facade
  • Highly ornamental with church-like finials, cornices, urns and tempiettos

FORM FOLLOW/WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING/HISTORICAL CONTEXT

See Beaux Arts section above

EXAMPLES OF SPANISH REVIVAL STYLE:

  • Wrigley Building
  • Old Republic Building on Michigan Ave.

❈ French Gothic Revival ❈

~1900s – 1930s

SUMMARY

As stated with the Beaux Arts movement and Spanish Revival style, this was yet another attempt to capture the old-world beauty and charm of famed European architecture. As a leader in art, design, and fashion, France was a clear choice for copying architectural styles and design aesthetics.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Made use of flying buttresses, gargoyles, arched windows, carved limestone cladding, fleur-de-lis patterns, and sandcastle pilings.
  • Heavy on symbolism and medieval details. 
  • Ornate doors and windows.  
  • Often contained hidden symbolism in the abundant decorations.
  • Since this was an older style replicated in the relative modernity of the early 20th century, it was applied to modern structural engineering and building materials. So there was often a steel frame underneath, with an exterior of old school ornamentation. 

FORM FOLLOWS/HISTORICAL CONTEXT

  • See Beaux Arts section above

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING

Again, like the revivalist styles above, this was another response to the desire for more grand structures in the young United States. As the country setting the “standards” in the Western world for beauty, France was a clear inspiration for creating more “beautiful architecture. The Chicago Tribune owner wanted Tribune Tower to be,  “The most beautiful office tower in the world.”

EXAMPLES OF FRENCH GOTHIC REVIVAL STYLE:

  • Tribune Tower 
  • University of Chicago campus
  • Holy Name Cathedral 
  • The Chicago Water Tower

❈ Prairie Style ❈

~1900 – 1915

SUMMARY

The Prairie Style is considered an entirely American form of mostly residential architecture.  Popularized by Frank Lloyd Wright, it made use of midwestern, horizon-hugging prairie tropes to create a new type of home in the Midwest. Buildings of this style hug the horizon and make use of simple earth tones and geometric shapes. There are no clear examples of Prairie Style on the river, though the Reid Murdoch Building has some Prairie style features.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Horizontal lines were ever-present and were meant to evoke the flatness of the Great Plains of the Midwest. Cantilevered roofs were long, horizontal, and flat.
  • The style was rooted in handmade craftsmanship. Much of the woodwork was typically handwrought and artistic stained glass windows were popular in the style.
  • The first floor was typically an open concept living/dining space.
  • Often, Prairie Style buildings had massive walls of windows, covering whole walls to let natural light in.

FORM FOLLOWS

  • Form follows the openness of the geological/geographical context: The Midwest.   

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING/HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The Prairie Style is considered an entirely new American form of Architecture and was created by Frank Lloyd Wright. It was a mostly residential style created as an escape from the elaborate Victorian mansions of Wright’s time. The openness of the floor plan was so impactful that we see its impact on homes being built today. The theme of “harmony with nature” was the backbone of the style as architecture was beginning to incorporate the surrounding environment into the planning process of building construction. A desire for more connection between the interior and exterior of buildings led to windows used more for letting natural light in to brighten the space.

EXAMPLES OF PRAIRIE STYLE BUILDINGS:

  • Unfortunately there are no Frank Lloyd Wright Prairie Style buildings on our tour route.  
  • Robie House (1909), Emil Bach House, Wright’s home, office and other houses in Oak Park 
  • Small examples of his stained glass windows hang on the grand staircase in the Art Institute.

❈ Art Deco ❈

~1920s – 1930s. 

SUMMARY

Art Deco was a clear product of the roaring 20’s. With new machinery, industry, and technology, there were new abilities to create elaborate, grand features in architecture. There was a focus on streamlined verticality, inset decorative geometric windows, metal ornamentation, and a precise repetition of patterns. Polished limestone facades are typical in this style, and Art Deco buildings often include parapets, corner spires, and telescoping towers. The style was all about luxury, modernity, and exquisite craftsmanship to represent the optimism and excitement of the late 1920s. The term “Art Deco” derives from the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs Industriels et Modernes, held in Paris. Note, however, that the term “Art Deco” was not widely used until 1968 when popularized by the art historian and critic Bevis Hillier in his 1968 book, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s – this is a great example of how architectural styles are defined by the generations that follow.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • The style is streamlined and vertical, polished and metallic.
  • Deep inset windows that create bold soaring vertical lines that have the dramatic effect of making the buildings seem even taller than they actually are. Many have darkened spandrel panels in between windows that create the vertical lines.   
  • There was a reliance on machine-made features, reflecting the desire to explore new technologies, so decorations tended to be ornate, such as repeated machine stamped panels or geometric shapes and patterns
  • The exterior curtain wall was made of polished limestone. In Chicago, much of that limestone came from Bedford, Indiana.
  • These buildings were often ornamented with decorative metal patterns like gold accents, floral medallions, bronze handrails, etc. 

FORM FOLLOWS: 

  • Technology, efficiency, and the opulence and optimism of The Roaring 20’s. 

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING

Art Deco buildings highlighted the desire for perfection of form following the Industrial Revolution. Many features about these designs were meant to echo industrialization and machine precision. In 1925, Art Deco was an expression of a new, industrial future, reflecting the values of the generation. Coupled with the optimism present in the U.S., this fueled more desire for unique American styles and designs. 

HISTORICAL CONTEXT 

The Roaring 20s, was a decade of sustained economic prosperity. The upper middle class began to have access to the culture of high society. And in many ways, the bohemian lifestyle was turning parts of life into art. Society began to express itself with glamour, vibrancy, sexual evolution, grand new ideas, jazz music, and flappers. Art Deco was a metaphor of the upward optimism of modernity and new technology. At the time, there was also a resurgence in archaeology, so there were many news stories about discovering new tombs/cities/artifacts from all over the world. This led to some Art Deco architects incorporating the reappropriated motifs of ancient civilizations into their buildings. King Tut’s tomb was re-discovered in 1922 and Egyptian stylings became fashionable, thus you will often see bas relief hieroglyphic-like renderings on Art Deco buildings.  

NOTE: Art Deco was a short-lived style because the Stock Market Crash of 1929 led to The Great Depression, deeming this grand, opulent style too expensive to continue designing in, as the country dealt with the economic fallout. By the mid-1930s, Art Deco was firmly rooted in the past.

EXAMPLES OF ART DECO BUILDINGS:

  • Board of Trade Building
  • Carbide and Carbon Building (Hotel Pendry)
  • Merchandise Mart
  • Intercontinental Hotel
  • Parts of the Old Main Post office 
  • Civic Opera
  • 2 North Riverside Plaza

❈ Modernism ❈

 ~1945 – 1960s

SUMMARY

Modernism is, at its core, a logical approach to architecture that emphasizes function over form to create structures that are simple, but highly functional “boxes.” The American Modernism movement took off as the country was recovering from The Great Depression and WWII. It was a step into the modern world after the architectural drought brought on by those two events in the 30s and early 40s. “Modernism” is a broad term that encompasses a number of similar styles from the second half of the 1900s. Modernist buildings were ahistorical of their time, owing nothing to the past with no visible links to the traditional.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Buildings were stripped down to their essential structure: skeleton, skin, and space. Steel held up the frame with a glass curtain wall wrapped around it
  • Modernist office buildings often had plaza spaces around them to provide a natural space to complement the stark simplicity of the buildings. These spaces humanized the buildings to give them space to “breathe.”
  • Exterior facades emphasized simple repetition of hard angles and lines with little-to-no ornamentation. Limestone or other stone cladding was antithetical to the ethos of modernism.
  • Often showed the depth of structure or construction with exposed steel beams or inner structural elements.
  • Emphasized new technologies and materials, such as anodized aluminum or oxidized steel. 
  • Often clad with dark, polarized floor to ceiling curtain windows showing-off the window technology of the day. 
  • There are three more specific styles of buildings with examples on the river that fall under the umbrella of Modernism:
    • Black Box (Miesian) Modernism ~1950s – 1970s
      • The term “black box modernism” is a useful way to describe Mies van der Rohe’s contribution to the modernist movement. Mies van der Rohe is considered the American father of Modernism with his boxy black buildings, made popular in Chicago. These buildings adhere to van der Rohe’s famously coined phrase, “less is more.” They are stark and dark, simple and efficient. Chicago is home to 60+ Miesian buildings. This term is acceptable to use on your tour to discuss the modernism movement as it relates to Chicago and Mies van der Rohe. 
      • Examples: Gateway Centers 1 and 2, AMA Plaza.
    • International Style  Began all the way back in the 1920s, but grew to its height in the U.S post-WWII, specifically in the 1970s.
      • Another subset of Modernism, this is a style that loses the metal exterior in favor of precast concrete or stone. It is sometimes considered a “softening” of the simple and stark black boxes of the 50s and 60s. It was freer and more flexible with its forms and designs, but still maintained its foundation in simple, boxy shapes. This style was both concurrent with van der Rohe’s Black Box style, and a response to it.
      • Examples: Gateway Center 3, Aon Center, old World Trade Center Twin Towers.
    • Brutalism ~1950s – 1970s (peaked in the late 1960s)
      • This was a post-war style that emerged first in the UK. It was said to be a response to the nostalgia of the architecture of the 40s and characterized by minimalist constructions that showcase the bare building materials and structural elements over decorative design. Made use of exposed, unpainted concrete or brick and was often monochrome in color. Said to also be a response to the turbulent times of the mid-20th century. Often found in government buildings, banks, courthouses, or educational institutions. 
      • Example: 55 W Wacker

FORM FOLLOWS: 

  • Function and utility, first and foremost.

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING

As the country was bouncing back from The Great Depression and WWII, there was a sense of frugality that captured much of the country’s industry. People were afraid that another market crash could happen at any time, so there was a desire to cut unnecessary costs. The focus went from the grand form of styles like Art Deco to the pure functionality of the modern building. It was a response to a conservative time in U.S. history, the 1950s. Just as with Art Deco before it, Modernist buildings continued to innovate and use more and more creative technologies/techniques/designs/features.

NOTE ON MIES VAN DER ROHE: Mies van der Rohe had no desire for celebrity or to have the approval of architecture intellectuals and critics, but rather he wanted to be a designer of good buildings that work, regardless of reward or criticism. He said, “I don’t want to be interesting, I want to be Good.” The way he saw it, buildings are “good” because they do what they were meant to do, not because they are attempting to be something they are not. Mies felt that while popular taste and interests are transitory, the good is eternal.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Modernism began to grow in Germany in the Bauhaus school (a famous art compound in Germany), but was custom made for the post-WWII “Greatest Generation,” when it blossomed in the U.S. Mies set up shop here after fleeing Nazi Germany in the 30s and his ideas gained international prominence in the 60s and 70s. After the architectural “drought” brought on by the turmoil of the 30’s and 40’s (there were almost no new office buildings built in the country from 1930-1957), architecture was rebooted with an eye towards conservative and functional style and cost.

EXAMPLES OF MODERNIST BUILDINGS:

  • Sears/Willis Tower
  • Federal Center
  • Crown Hall
  • Hancock Tower/875 N. Michigan Ave.
  • Inland Steel
  • Gateway Centers 1 & 2 (Black Box Modernism)
  • Gateway Center 3 (International Style)
  • AON Center (International Style)
  • AMA Plaza (Black Box Modernism)
  • Lake Point Tower (Curvilinear Modernism)
  • Marina City (Brutalism)
  • River City (Brutalism)

❈ Postmodernism ❈

 ~1960s – 1990s

SUMMARY

Postmodernist architecture first appeared in the 1960s as a reaction to the formality, simplicity, and lack of variety in modern architecture, particularly that of the International Style. But it was most popular in the U.S. in the 1980s and 90s. It was intended to more intentionally reflect the history and culture of the cities where it appeared, leading to a wide range of features using unique shapes, materials, and colors. Bold, entertaining, and often whimsical, Postmodernist architecture brought the artistic flair that Modernism had left behind back to the forefront of design. Famed Chicagoan Helmut Jahn was a prominent Postmodernism architect.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Eclectic and abstract. 
  • Made use of curvilinear and complex shapes with ornamental and historical touches.
  • Creative and vibrant use of color. 
  • Often had whimsical stylistic references to the purpose of the building like a parking garage that looks like the front of a car or a bank that looks like a cash register.
  • Storytelling becomes part of the architect’s job with many Postmodernist buildings.
  • There are two additional “styles” that you can see on the river that many consider to be borne of the postmodernism movement:
    • Neoclassical ~1800s – present day
      • Though there was a Neoclassical movement in the 1800s, in present day, this is mostly an umbrella term used to describe designs that reach to the past to reinterpret old, more classic, pre-Modern styles in new ways using more modern materials. Neoclassical is “old meets new.”
      • Examples: 77 W Wacker
    • Echo-Deco present day
      • This is an informal term that some docents use to describe NBC Tower. The broader style is Postmodernism, but as it is such an effective modern reproduction of the Art Deco style, it might fit into your tour to refer to the style as Echo-Deco.
      • Examples: NBC Tower

FORM FOLLOWS: 

  • Expression and storytelling.

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING

Beginning in the 1960s, the U.S. was undergoing a tumultuous transformation. A streak of creativity based on shunning traditions and “the way things are” fueled interest in fresh and unique designs that reinterpreted and reimagined older styles for the current age. These buildings expressed the desire to leave the structure and rigidity of the Modernism movement. 

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Postmodernism arose to counter the austerity of the Modern School of Architecture in the 1960s. Against the backdrop of the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War and other international struggles, people were looking for something that went against the norm and could break us out of the “old ways” of thinking. There was also a desire to bring more excitement and creativity to the world of design and the increased appearance of bright colors and unique shapes in interior design began to influence architecture and design at large. Glass technology had leapt forward in recent years, with increased pliability and opportunities to create unique shapes.

EXAMPLES OF POSTMODERN BUILDINGS:

  • River Cottages
  • Pritzker Pavilion
  • Thompson Center
  • 60 E. Lake St (a parking lot that looks like the grill of a car)
  • 77 W Wacker

❈ Contextualism ❈

~1960s – present day

SUMMARY

This is a type of site specific design with features that flatter the context of a building. Structures are designed in relation to the literal and abstract qualities and characteristics of the surrounding environment, be that other buildings, landmarks, or anything in the natural environment. Contexualist construction is quite common along the river and throughout the city. Though similar in spirit, Contextualism is not the same as Postmodernism as it is specific and pervasive enough to stand on its own.

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Curved walls of windows that match or imitate the surrounding environment.
  • Setbacks or patios to match the height of neighboring buildings
  • Using similar colors or shapes of nearby buildings.
  • Often makes use of reflective glass windows to highlight the surroundings of the building.

FORM FOLLOWS: 

  • The immediate environment, both natural and constructed.

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING:

Contextualism was seen as a reaction against socially sterile buildings with no sense of their immediate place or environment, which was the hallmark of Modernist buildings that can be placed anywhere. There came a desire for buildings with a sense of place after the Modernist zeal had brought rows of sterile office buildings to many U.S. cities. A Contextualist building is site specific and meant to be exactly where it’s placed. This idea brought a new level of appreciation for the unique layouts, placements, and surroundings of lots up for development, as well as a stronger desire for architects to design for the environment first, rather than placing their aesthetic preferences first. 

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The 1980s, when Contextualism took off across the country, there was yet another cultural shift. The tumult of the 60s and 70s (Vietnam War, Cold War, Civil Rights Era) taught the U.S. that society was more complex than we understood. Ideas of social connectivity and connecting with people from different backgrounds began to gain steam. Learning how to celebrate our diversity was an idea just beginning to percolate. This brought about a societal desire to break away from the rigidity and conformity of the Modernist style. It was no longer about blending in (Modernism) or standing out (Postmodernism) but rather standing out while blending in. 

EXAMPLES OF CONTEXTUALIST BUILDINGS:

  • 333 W Wacker
  • Trump International Hotel and Tower
  • 111 W Wacker
  • Nuveen Building
  • Gateway Center 4

❈ Contemporary ❈

~2000 – present day

SUMMARY

This is the broad term used to describe the bulk of architecture that we are seeing constructed in our present day. Many newer buildings do use features of previous styles like Neoclassical, Minimalism, Postmodernism, Contextualism, etc. But regarding the name we give these modern buildings, it will be up to the next generation to name, define, and categorize the style. Many Contemporary buildings are highly technological, some are environmentally “friendly” (LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Certified buildings are increasingly popular), and can resemble large-scale sculptures. Some describe contemporary buildings as “futuristic.”

DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES

  • Highly reflective, mirror-like glass.
  • Cable glass curtain walls. 
  • Daring suspension systems and arms. 
  • Often LEED certified, or “green.”
  • Often “futuristic” in appearance.

FORM FOLLOWS: 

  • Technical performance, technology and ecology

WHAT VALUES WAS IT EXPRESSING/HISTORICAL CONTEXT

As stated above, the buildings we are seeing constructed in our present day will be defined, categorized, and labeled by the next generation of architects and designers. But it isn’t hard to see the reflection of our times in the most common features we see in present-day architecture. Like the culturally dominant iPhone, they are often sleek, reflective, and look “expensive.” Against the backdrop of climate change, the desire for LEED Certified buildings grows more each day and rooftop green spaces not only make the building more eco-friendly, but they provide natural space and greenery for the nature-starved city-dweller. And just as the U.S. has always had a love affair with new technology, they make use of the newest technological features with buildings packed to the brim with computing power and “smart” technology.

EXAMPLES OF CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS:

  • 150 N Riverside
  • Bank of America Building
  • St Regis Tower 
  • Wolf Point East/West
  • Salesforce Tower